Which are the cardinal signs of inflammation?

• A. Warmth, redness, swelling, pain, and decreased function.
• B. Fever, fatigue, rash, and nausea.
• C. Swelling and scarring only.
• D. Redness and itching only.

Answer: (A)

Inflammation presents with five classic local signs that reflect vascular changes and tissue responses. The best answer lists warmth, redness, swelling, pain, and decreased function. Warmth and redness come from vasodilation and increased blood flow to the affected area. Swelling results from increased vascular permeability and fluid leakage into interstitial spaces. Pain is produced by mediators such as bradykinin and prostaglandins that sensitize nociceptors. Decreased function follows from the combination of pain and swelling, limiting movement or normal use of the involved tissue.

The other options don’t fit because fever, fatigue, rash, and nausea are systemic or generalized symptoms rather than local inflammatory signs; swelling with scarring focuses only on a repair outcome; redness and itching alone are incomplete and don’t capture the full set of local inflammatory manifestations.